STEM class momentary investigation: Teaching and learning engagement

Background: In STEM project-based learning (PjBL) classrooms, hands-on and inquiry-based activities foster learning and attention. Given the dynamic and time-constrained nature of these classes, understanding student learning engagement is crucial. Aims: We aimed to identify teaching approaches through moment-to-moment classroom observations and examine how STEM self-efficacy, prior knowledge, gender, and teaching approaches influenced learning engagement. Sample: Observations included 78 classes with 312 students from two elementary schools, seven middle schools, and one high school in Taiwan. Surveys were collected from 179 students (58 % males) across 49 classes. Methods: Student engagement and teaching behaviors were recorded every minute. Cluster analysis classified teacher behaviors into distinct teaching approaches, and the proportion of class minutes devoted to each cluster was calculated. Multilevel linear models were used to test how class-level teaching approaches and student-level factors predicted five engagement types: passive, active, constructive, interactive, and irrelevant behaviors. Results: Two teaching approaches emerged: teacher-centered and student-centered. Student-centered activities were associated with more constructive, fewer passive behaviors. Prior knowledge positively influenced constructive and interactive engagement, while reducing irrelevant behaviors. Student-centered activities weakened the positive association between prior knowledge and active engagement, while strengthening the relationship between self-efficacy and interactive engagement. Females were more passive, whereas males were more constructive. Conclusions: Student-centered activities, prior knowledge, and male gender contributed to higher-order engagement in STEM-PjBL classes. Student-centered teaching moderated learning processes by weakening the link between prior knowledge and active engagement while strengthening the connection between self-efficacy and interactive engagement. Practical suggestions were offered based on these findings.